1. Introduction:
Despite the situation, on par with other principles of international human rights law such as right to health and freedom from torture for example, education has been enshrined as a fundamental entitlement which must be protected by all.[1] It is not only viewed in its true capacity as an independent right, but also as a means to help people and enable them to establish other human rights.[2] To begin with, extraordinary rights assumed to be the right within itself enjoying bare-bone literacy and numeracy skills but have since developed into a much larger perspective embracing quality education in all its levels along with creating possibilities for lifelong skill enhancement. [3] The nature of this right in international law is evident from its incorporation into leading global instruments such as Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)[4]that state education as means to facilitate the growth and formation of expressing an individual’s personality, enhancing human dignity.
The significance of the right to education extends beyond empowering individuals; acts as an enabler for a knowing, accepting and friendship between all nations worldwide but also among racial in religious groups. [5] In addition, it is a significant seller in the achievement of sustainable development goals accordingly poverty elimination and social economic growth promotion. In international sphere of law, right to education is not just a legal necessity for nations but it becomes some ethic responsibility that can build up societies where all the associates comply fully and efficiently.[6]
2. Historical Context of the Right to Education
2.1. Early Concepts and Recognition
This idea is deeply rooted in the history of mankind learning was privilege during ancient civilizations times, only for these elites to gain education. [7] However, this was until major philosophical movements changed the direction for a more inclusive educational outlook. For example, the Enlightenment era especially in Europe had many great philosophers of such caliber as John Locke[8] and Jean-Jacques Rousseau[9] preaching education based on their writings that were aimed at improving human beings’ lives for social equalizer. In one of his books, Rousseau writes on natural education where he stresses that the process of education should follow naturally with human development.[10]
2.2. Influence of Major Philosophical and Political Developments
Political developments had a significant influence on the transformation of education into an acknowledged right. 18th and 19th centuries marked a period when democratic ideals bloomed and with them the idea that education was an inherent right of every person. [11] This period marked a new dawn with laws and policies supporting universal education. Notably, the introduction of Prussian General Education System at the beginning of 1800s inspired a concept of mandatory education and it spread all across globe.[12] 20th century, especially after World War II as part of the general move related to all aspects of human rights saw a more significant intersection between education and Human Rights.[13] 1948 UDHR also acknowledged education as an obvious right for which everyone should be entitled, Article 26 was clear in this regard.[14] This was a vital moment when education’s status transitioned from being an elitist privilege to becoming recognized as a human right exercised by all individuals regardless of their nationality.
3. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Right to Education
3.1. Overview of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The UDHR, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, represents a foundational milestone in the history of human rights. [15] It was the first international acknowledgment that all human beings are entitled to certain inalienable rights irrespective of status. The UDHR comprises 30 articles, each detailing an essential aspect of human rights, and serves as a guiding framework for subsequent human rights instruments.[16]
3.2. Article 26: Analysis and Significance
In article 26, the UDHR addresses specifically to right to education and states that it is one of those fundamental human rights. [17] This article is divided into three sections in order to identify the various aspects of this right. “Everyone has the right to education; Education must be free at least in the elementary and fundamental stage.”[18] This provision underlines the availability of education as an important requirement for achieving various human rights. Article 26, part two directs for the promotion of universal education accessibility. [19] It means that states have an obligation to ensure secondary education is accessible to all and higher at the same time based upon merit.
The third and last clause of Article 26 states the function of education in human personality development along with deepening respect for all individuals’ rights and primary liberties. It also fosters awareness, tolerance, and friendship of all nations as well as racial or religious groups. [20] This part goes beyond the narrow perception of education as simply academic knowledge, emphasizing its importance in fostering peace and understanding among people living in areas with great ethnic variety.
4. Evolution of the Right to Education in International Treaties
1966 ICESCR The right to education was formalized in Article 13 of ICESCR affirms everyone’s right to education “Direct instruction has ensconced in it the provision for glass that man be educated as a whole being and should develop his personality, dignity. It lists that primary education should be compulsory and available free to all; secondary in its various forms made usually available but accessible also encourages higher education to be made generally accessible based on capacity. [21] By linking education to economic, social, and cultural rights this covenant emphasizes the vital function of education both for self-improvement as well as overall societal development.[22] Through General Comment No. 13, elaborated on the obligation of states concerning education, and here are four A’s framework availability accessibility acceptability adaptability.[23]
The 1989 adopted Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) elevates the right to education with a child-centric approach. Article 28 of the Convention on Children’s Rights requires states to provide primary education free and compulsory for all, recommends various types of secondary school available to every child with no discrimination, and makes also higher studies accessible based only on capacity. [24] Also, Article 29 explains the objectives of education by highlighting that it should develop a personality and talents; mental and physical abilities up to their fullest potential.[25] As a focus on the holistic development of children also influences international human rights legislation by recognizing their unique needs and rights concerning education, it is ideally placed.
In addition to these basic instruments, the right to education is further strengthened by a variety of other international instruments. 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education is one of the pillars, which expressly prohibits all forms of discrimination through education and establishes guidelines for equal educational opportunities.[26] However, the matter was slightly addressed by The International Labour Organization’s Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138), and the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182). [27] When it comes to fighting child labor issues it indirectly supports education rights by defining minimum age for employment.[28] More recently, such signposts as the Sustainable Development Goals, specifically dealing with this case of education –Goal 4 emphasizes inclusive and equitable quality feel long to be aware that education is a real dynamic lifelong process.[29]
5. Role of the United Nations in Shaping the Right to Education
5.1. The UN Human Rights Council and Education
The United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) is a key factor in global advocacy and promotion of the right to education. Through its regular sitting and resolutions, the UNHRC has continuously addressed education as a basic human right necessary for rendering all other human rights. In its resolutions including resolution 8/4[30], the Council underscores education as an enabler of dignity and tolerance, empowering individuals to reach their fullest potential.[31] This is an issue that has a significant accentuation for attitudes and policies of international significance so as educational inequalities meted out to nations afflicted with systemic issues inside their own education systems.
5.2. Contributions of Special Rapporteurs on the Right to Education
Steps in the direction of addressing educational disparities include appointing Special Rapporteurs on right to education by the UNHRC. These Rapporteurs act as independent specialists who survey or investigate the situation related to educational rights throughout the world and report their findings. [32] For instance, Kishore Singh the former Special Rapporteur on Article right to education has turned out instrumental in identifying failings as well as suggesting points that could be pursued worldwide about acquiring quality education.[33] The work of these Rapporteurs is a priceless expert perspective that has an effect on both the national and international education policies.
6. Regional Perspectives and Varied Interpretations
6.1. The European Approach to Education Rights
In Europe, there is an embedded framework that underscores inclusivity and accessibility to the right to education. The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has meaningfully contributed to the development of this right, especially with respect to how Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 to the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). [34] This Article does not specifically refer to the right to education However, when construing this provision by ECtHR it implies that positive duties are imposed on states for ensuring effective access to people having a capacity and desire for studying. Latest landmark case was “Costa and Pavan v. Italy”[35], which reflected a stand by Court on concept of non-discriminatory access to education; stated explicitly that states must refrain not just from any negative involvement but must also do their duty as far as making it available & accessible is concerned.[36] This is the wider commitment of Europe towards educational rights with policies and initiatives at EU level including when looking at issues about education and training in its Europe 2020 strategy which sets goals that are patterned after such benchmarks.[37]
6.2. Education Rights in the African Human Rights System
The African human rights system has a specific perspective on education and the right to it, defining them through their social and collectivist nature. The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (or Banjul Charter) does not specifically mention the right to education but its provisions about the rights of work, health, and culture call for providing people with educational opportunities.[38] The more explicit recognition is present in the African Charter on Rights and Welfare of the Child, as well as with Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights which concerns about Rights of women People in Africa (Maputo protocol). [39] While the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights may not be as old as its European or Inter-American counterparts, it has begun to develop jurisprudence that manifests a solid commitment toward educational rights. Court rulings frequently stress the critical role of education in securing other human rights and emphasize states’ responsibility to remove barriers that hinder access to education, especially for vulnerable populations.[40]
6.3. The Inter-American Perspective on Educational Rights
In the Inter-American human rights system, it is recognized that education forms one of basic tools for social development and empowerment. The American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR) also clearly mentions the right to education, which requires states within it to ensure free and compulsory primary schooling as well as promoting secondary and higher levels of learning.[41] The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has helped ensure this right, including in cases such as “Pacheco Tineo Family v Bolivia” where the court emphasized the duty states have to provide education regardless of discriminatory actions. [42] This viewpoint is also reinforced by the efforts of Inter-American Commission on Human Rights which has published reports and recommendations concerning the vital role that education plays in preventing inequality and fostering social justice within Americas.[43]
7. Case Studies: Implementation and Challenges
In the United States, the liberty to learn has come a long way on its road to success largely in regard to equality and quality. For example, the landmark decision in ‘Brown v. Board of Education (1954)[44] represents progress by requiring school desegregation and establishing a precedent for equal educational opportunity. Also, the ‘Individuals with Disabilities Education Act’ (IDEA)[45] consolidated the community’s dedication to inclusive education. Nevertheless, challenges remain there mainly in the disparity of school districts’ funding. They often have higher tax revenues in wealthier districts that result in better facilities and resources than the underfunded ones – usually found among poorer areas. Further, public debates over curriculum content have increased in the U.S., mirroring general societal divisions.[46]
On the other hand, Kenya is a developing country that has specific challenges in implementing this right to education. 2003 marked the launching of yet another government initiative, ‘Free Primary Education’,[47] which has significantly increased enrollment rates evident by now. “Other challenges hindering the full realization of all children’s educational rights include lack of adequate infrastructure, teachers scare and socio-economic barriers such as those occurring in rural areas. [48] The gap in educational quality between rural and urban schools is also still a problem, with the latter lacking essential amenities.
8. Contemporary Issues and the Right to Education
8.1. Digital Divide and Access to Education
The digital divide has a great effect on the right to education, especially in poor societies. This divide, whereby there is unequal access to technology and the internet connection widens inequality in education. [49] According to The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), almost 45 percent of the world’s population does not have access to Internet as it is one crucial tool for modern education.[50] This gap is not only a technological issue but also connects to basic human rights as such inequality in internet access provides for further deepening of the existing educational disparity, which will have negative effects on marginalized populations.
8.2. Impact of Global Crises on Education
The United Nations Children’s Fund UNICEF has since reported that COVID-19 pandemic severely interfered with education systems across the globe and affected over one billion students. This was an unprecedented challenge that showed the vulnerability of educational rights during crises. [51] School closures and rapid transition to remote learning brought the digital divide as well as inadequate preparedness of education establishments for such crises into stark relief. Additionally, the impact of pandemic was not uniform; it particularly affected vulnerable populations – children in low-income countries and intensified existing educational disparities.[52]
9. Critical Assessment of the Right to Education
9.1. Progress and Shortcomings
The history of the right to education beginning with an initial proclamation in the UDHR marks one major success story for international human rights law. After the implementation of ICESCR, there has been a global surge in education access particularly. Despite all these developments, this right nonetheless remains uneven and fraught with challenges.[53] Education quality and access are still intense disparities, particularly in developing areas. 2020 UNESCO report acknowledges the fact that still over 168; million children and youth are out of school- an indicator of one more effort to make education universally available. [54] Even though the increase is encouraging –the gender gap in education continues to be a significant obstacle for many societies.[55] In addition, there are issues regarding the commodification of education and increased privatization of schooling that also give rise to an apprehension about whether quality basic education will be equitably available or not as adjudged by the Special Rapporteur in 2019.[56]
9.2. The Interplay with Other Human Rights
Education is not a right in itself, but it can be seen as linked with other human rights to form any overall relationship that leads toward advancement of humanity. Education is fundamental for realizing other rights such as the right to work, freedom of speech, and political participation. [57] A study in 2021 by European Court of Human Rights stressed the importance of education for establishing democratic societies since it paves the way for fostering tolerance and social harmony among individuals.[58] Education is inextricably linked with other human rights – whereby bad education leads to increased poverty and inequality thus undermining the full realization of economic, and social rights.
9.3. Recommendations for Future Development
In order to tackle these challenges and promote the right to education, several recommended steps are suggested. Increased investment in education, especially in the developing countries is firstly important. [59] This is not only through financial investment but also by developing inclusive and quality educational systems that meet various needs. 2023 established the International Education Fund as a positive move in this direction, promoting cooperation among countries for education funding.[60] Secondly, technology in education must be emphasized and made as even among the students as possible. The COVID-19 pandemic illustrated the possibilities of e-learning but also brought to light the scale of digital divide, as evidenced by OECD in 2022. [61] Finally, stronger monitoring mechanisms both internationally and domestically are needed to ensure adherence to education rights standards through the holding accountable of states in keeping with their commitments.[62]
10. Conclusion
The political evolution of the right to education means a journey full stop, where there are breakthroughs and many upcoming challenges. This right is historically grounded on the UDHR[63] and has been developed through different International Treaties including the ICESCR[64] as well as Convention on The Rights of Child. Its understanding has further been enriched through regional interpretations with the European, African, and inter-American systems providing different perspectives. This can be seen from case studies that depict a diverse environment of implementation successes in developed countries and struggling regions in the strict sense, of developing nations.
The right to education is set to encounter new challenges in the future. Digital divide and global crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic have shown that there is a need for an adaptive and resilient educational system. Future progress in this right may well shift toward being inclusive, embracing innovation through technology, and ensuring high-quality education to all people regardless of their socio-economic. It makes people powerful, stimulates economic development, and builds social equity. As a cornerstone of sustainable development, it is imperative that this right continues to evolve, adapting to emerging global challenges while remaining committed to its core principle: affordable and quality education for everyone.[65]
Bibliography
Primary Sources:
Cases:
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
Case of Pacheco Tineo Family v. Bolivia, Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACrtHR), 25 November 2013.
ECHR Ruling in Costa and Pavan v. Italy, No. 54270/10, 28 August 2012.
Osmanoglu and Kocabas v. Switzerland, No. 29086/12, ECtHR (Third Section), 10 April 2017.
Statutory Instruments:
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, ‘African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights’ (1981).
African Union, ‘African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child’ (1990).
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, ‘General Comment No. 13: The Right to Education (Art. 13)’ (8 December 1999).
European Commission, Europe 2020: A Strategy for Smart, Sustainable and Inclusive Growth: Communication from the Commission (Publications Office of the European Union, 2010).
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004).
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 993 UNTS 3, art 13 (1966).
United Nations, ‘International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ (1966).
United Nations General Assembly, ‘Convention on the Rights of the Child’ (20 November 1989).
United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Resolution adopted by the Human Rights Council on 26 June 2014 – 26/17. The right to education: technical and vocational education and training’, A/HRC/RES/26/17.
United Nations, ‘Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’, A/RES/70/1 (25 September 2015).
United Nations, ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (1948).
United Nations, “United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner,” in The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2014).
UNESCO, ‘Convention against Discrimination in Education’ (14 December 1960).
Secondary Sources:
Books:
John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Kay & Troutman 1847).
Katarina Tomaševski, Human Rights Obligations: Making Education Available, Accessible, Acceptable and Adaptable, Right to Education Primers No. 3 (2001).
Journal Articles:
Aubrey Rosenberg, “Rousseau’s Emile: The Nature and Purpose of Education,” in The Educational Legacy of Romanticism (1990), 11.
Dallas D. Irvine, “The French and Prussian Staff Systems before 1870,” The Journal of the American Military History Foundation (1938), 192-203.
Flávia Piovesan, Mariela Morales Antoniazzi, and Julia Cortez da Cunha Cruz, “The Protection of Social Rights by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights,” in Research Handbook on International Law and Social Rights, ed. [Editor’s Name], 156-172 (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2020).
Nicolas Reuge, Robert Jenkins, Matt Brossard, Bobby Soobrayan, Suguru Mizunoya, Jim Ackers, Linda Jones, and Wongani Grace Taulo, “Education Response to COVID-19 Pandemic, a Special Issue Proposed by UNICEF: Editorial Review,” International Journal of Educational Development 87 (2021): 102485.
Sava L. Andrew and John Aluko Orodho, “Socio-Economic Factors Influencing Pupil’s Access to Education in Informal Settlements: A Case of Kibera, Nairobi County, Kenya,” International Journal of Education and Research 2, no. 3 (2014): 1-16.
Sean F. Reardon, “The Widening Income Achievement Gap,” Educational Leadership 70, no. 8 (2013): 10-16.
Reports
Ebba Ossiannilsson, “Open Educational Resources (OER) and Some of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals,” The International Journal of Information and Learning Technology 40, no. 5 (2023): 548-561.
Government of Kenya, ‘Free Primary Education Policy’ (Ministry of Education, 2003).
International Education Fund, ‘IEF Annual Report 2023’ (IEF 2023).
Kishore Singh, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education,” New York, USA: United Nations Human Rights Council (2016).
OECD Indicators, “Education at a Glance 2022,” [insert link], Acesso em março de (2023).
Sital Kalantry, Jocelyn E. Getgen, and Steven Arrigg Koh, “Enhancing Enforcement of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights Using Indicators: A Focus on the Right to Education in the ICESCR,” in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, ed. [Editor’s Name], 211-268 (Routledge, 2017).
UNESCO, UNICEF, and Banco Mundial, “The State of the Global Education Crisis: A Path to Recovery. World Bank Group” (2021).
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), “Global Education Monitoring Report 2020: Inclusion and Education: All Means All,” 92310038 (2020).
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Education for Sustainable Development Goals: Learning Objectives (2017).
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), “Global Education Monitoring Report” (2020).
Why is it important to have the right to education formally enshrined in law and other instruments?”, UNESCO, 27 April, 2023. Accessed on 16 December 2023 https://www.unesco.org/en/right-education/need-know
[1] “Why is it important to have the right to education formally enshrined in law and other instruments?”, UNESCO, 27 April, 2023. Accessed on 16 December 2023 https://www.unesco.org/en/right-education/need-know
[2] Ibid
[3] Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UNGA Res 217 A(III), art 26 (1948).
[4] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 993 UNTS 3, art 13 (1966).
[5] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Education for Sustainable Development Goals: Learning Objectives (2017).
[6] Ibid
[7] John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Kay & Troutman 1847).
[8] Ibid
[9] Aubrey Rosenberg, “Rousseau’s Emile: The Nature and Purpose of Education,” in The Educational Legacy of Romanticism (1990), 11.
[10] Ibid
[11] Dallas D. Irvine, “The French and Prussian Staff Systems before 1870,” The Journal of the American Military History Foundation (1938), 192-203.
[12] Ibid
[13] Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UNGA Res 217A (III) (1948) Art 26.
[14] Ibid
[15] United Nations, “Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” UN General Assembly (1948).
[16] Ibid
[17] Sital Kalantry, Jocelyn E. Getgen, and Steven Arrigg Koh, “Enhancing Enforcement of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights Using Indicators: A Focus on the Right to Education in the ICESCR,” in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, ed. [Editor’s Name], 211-268 (Routledge, 2017).
[18] Ibid
[19] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), “Global Education Monitoring Report” (2020).
[20] Katarina Tomaševski, Human Rights Obligations: Making Education Available, Accessible, Acceptable and Adaptable, Right to Education Primers No. 3 (2001).
[21] Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, ‘General Comment No. 13: The Right to Education (Art. 13)’ (8 December 1999).
[22] Ibid
[23] Ibid
[24] United Nations General Assembly., ‘Convention on Rights of the Child’ (20 November, 1989).
[25] Ibid
[26] UNESCO, ‘Convention against the Discrimination in Education’ (14 December, 1960).
[27] United Nations (UN), ‘Transforming our world: 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’, A/RES/70/1 (25 September, 2015).
[28] Ibid
[29] Ibid
[30] United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Resolution adopted by Human Rights Council on 26 June, 2014 – 26/17. The right to education: technical and vocational education and training’, A/HRC/RES/26/17.
[31] Ibid
[32] United Nations (UN), “United Nations Human Rights Office of High Commissioner,” in The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2014).
[33] Ibid
[34] ECHR Ruling in Costa and Pavan v. Italy, No. 54270/10, 28 August 2012.
[35] Ibid
[36] Ibid
[37] European Commission, Europe 2020: A Strategy for Smart, Sustainable and Inclusive Growth: Communication from the Commission (Publications Office of the European Union, 2010).
[38] African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, ‘African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights’ (1981).
[39] African Union, ‘African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child’ (1990).
[40] Ibid
[41] Case of Pacheco Tineo Family v. Bolivia, Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACrtHR), 25 November 2013.
[42] Flávia Piovesan, Mariela Morales Antoniazzi, and Julia Cortez da Cunha Cruz, “The Protection of Social Rights by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights,” in Research Handbook on International Law and Social Rights, ed. [Editor’s Name], 156-172 (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2020).
[43] Ibid
[44] Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
[45] Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004).
[46] Sean F. Reardon, “The Widening Income Achievement Gap,” Educational Leadership 70, no. 8 (2013): 10-16.
[47] Government of Kenya, ‘Free Primary Education Policy’ (Ministry of Education, 2003).
[48] Sava L. Andrew and John Aluko Orodho, “Socio-Economic Factors Influencing Pupil’s Access to Education in Informal Settlements: A Case of Kibera, Nairobi County, Kenya,” International Journal of Education and Research 2, no. 3 (2014): 1-16.
[49] UNESCO, UNICEF, and Banco Mundial, “The State of the Global Education Crisis: A Path to Recovery. World Bank Group” (2021).
[50] Ibid
[51] Nicolas Reuge, Robert Jenkins, Matt Brossard, Bobby Soobrayan, Suguru Mizunoya, Jim Ackers, Linda Jones, and Wongani Grace Taulo, “Education Response to COVID-19 Pandemic, a Special Issue Proposed by UNICEF: Editorial Review,” International Journal of Educational Development 87 (2021): 102485.
[52] Ibid
[53] Kishore Singh, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education,” New York, USA: United Nations Human Rights Council (2016).
[54] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), “Global Education Monitoring Report 2020: Inclusion and Education: All Means All,” 92310038 (2020).
[55] Ibid
[56] Ibid
[57] Osmanoglu and Kocabas v. Switzerland, No. 29086/12, ECtHR (Third Section), 10 April 2017.
[58] Ibid
[59] International Education Fund, ‘IEF Annual Report 2023’ (IEF 2023).
[60] Ibid
[61] OECD Indicators, “Education at a Glance 2022,” [insert link], Acesso em março de (2023).
[62] Ibid
[63] United Nations, ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (1948).
[64] United Nations, ‘International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ (1966).
[65] Ebba Ossiannilsson, “Open Educational Resources (OER) and Some of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals,” The International Journal of Information and Learning Technology 40, no. 5 (2023): 548-561.
