Introduction:
The statement “Business is business, and the international legal environment is irrelevant for international business law” is a controversial one that can be debated from multiple angles. In my opinion, the international legal environment is critical for international business law, and businesses must abide by the rules and regulations set by international law to operate legally in different countries. However, it can be argued that certain aspects of international legal environment may create barriers to business growth as it would be evident by looking at the examples ahead and hence it does come with several cons which would be analyzed and discussed in complete details with the use of examples as demanded by the statement.
Explanation of the Statement:
We would develop the report by having an insight of the basic terminologies used in the statement. The begin with, we would take a look at what the international legal environment is and how does it operates followed by interpreting the international business law coming down to how these connect and are relevant before stepping down to the significance and the minors of international legal environment in international business law.
International Legal Environment:
It is crucial for organizations to comprehend and adhere to the legal requisites for conducting business in the global environment. The International Legal Environment of Business offers a comprehensive exploration of the various legal quandaries that arise while operating internationally.[1] Learners analyze how the constantly evolving global economy impacts the decision-making process in business.[2]
One of the principal themes is national sovereignty, and how the laws that are applicable within developing and developed countries, international agreements, and treaties influence international business. [3] Other topics include the influence of culture on business practices, considerations related to international trade, and the administration of multinational corporations. Learners analyze about the significance of balancing ethical, cultural, and political concerns with the legal and regulatory constraints that apply to conducting business in the global economy.[4] When operating in various countries, businesses must abide by the domestic laws of those nations in addition to any applicable international regulations.[5]
International laws aim to strike a balance between granting nations considerable control over their international business dealings and promoting economic advantages of collaboration with other countries.[6] Throughout history, many countries have relied on international agreements to regulate their global business operations, leading to the emergence of a dynamic set of international laws that facilitate worldwide trade and commerce.[7]
International Business Law:
International business law pertains to the legal framework governing the global business sector. This area of law encompasses the intersection of economic principles and legal regulations, covering a wide range of subjects such as international commercial transactions, licensing, tariffs, taxes, and others. [8] The specifics of international business law differ depending on the jurisdiction. Essentially, international business law extends the foundational concepts of general business law to an international context.[9]
The field of international business law involves the legal aspects of global commerce and their effects on diverse legal systems. This area of law includes subjects such as economics, international commercial transactions, licensing regulations, and tariffs and taxes, among others. [10] Jurisdictional differences affect the specifics of international business law. This legal domain builds on the fundamental principles of business law and broadens them to the global marketplace.[11]
International business laws impact a company’s operations in several ways, such as defining the type, location, and manner of production, shipment, and sales of goods.[12] Public international law issues affect commerce and trade in a variety of ways. The laws of several different jurisdictions come into play in each transaction.[13] Moreover, it is significant as it elucidates how distinct legal systems function in various countries. It facilitates conducting business in an interconnected world by providing legal guidance on best practices when interacting with foreign entities.[14]
Relevancy of International Legal environment with International Business Law:
The international legal environment provides regulations that govern international business transactions and activities, including laws established by governments and international organizations.[15] International business law covers a range of legal issues, such as trade, investment, intellectual property, labor, environment, and human rights, which are governed by a complex network of national laws, international treaties, and legal instruments.[16]
For companies involved in global operations, it is crucial to comprehend and adhere to the pertinent legal frameworks and regulations to ensure conformity and avert legal conflicts.[17] In order to minimize the likelihood of negative events and maximize positive outcomes, an organization must allocate resources towards controlling and monitoring the impact of potential risks.[18]
The international legal environment is continuously changing with the emergence of new treaties, regulations, and legal precedents. [19] In some cases, international business law has been adjusted to incorporate these sources to avoid conflicting norms and concerns. This was done to ensure compliance with all regulations. [20]Hence, it is crucial for the countries to keep up the latest legal developments.
Moreover, I believe, in general, the international legal environment holds significant importance in international business law. It is crucial for businesses operating in the global market to comprehend the legal structures and regulations that control international transactions and activities.
Significance of International Legal environment with International Business Law:
International business law is heavily reliant on the international legal environment, which provides legal structures and regulations that oversee international transactions and activities.[21] These frameworks cover a broad range of areas, such as international trade, investment, intellectual property, labor, environment, and human rights, trademark legislation, company law, consumer protection and are regulated by a complex system of national laws, international treaties, and other legal instruments.[22] It is crucial for businesses to comply with these regulations to operate effectively in the global marketplace. To achieve this, businesses must understand and keep an eye on potential risks to minimize negative consequences and maximize positive outcomes.[23] Moreover, further discussed below:
= International legal environment helps to ensure market stability:
The international legal environment significantly impacts a business’s operations, and if the legal system functions effectively, the company can achieve its full profitability potential. A sound legal environment instills confidence in external investors by ensuring adherence to ethical business practices. [24] Additionally, a favorable legal environment is a crucial factor in attracting foreign investment as well as ensuring and maintaining the market stability.[25]
The legal environment plays a crucial role in determining the proper operation of a business, including the activities undertaken, profit margins, and customer interactions, among other factors. A focus on the legal environment of business is essential for building a strong economy in a given locality. A robust and stable legal environment is instrumental in ensuring stability and driving economic prosperity in a country.[26]
International legal environments ensure market stability by providing legal protections for property rights and enforcing contracts, promoting fair competition, protecting consumers, and promoting predictability and transparency in business transactions. [27] Hence in my opinion, the factors make a good argument over how international business law help to build investor and consumer confidence, supporting long-term business growth and stability in market.[28]
International legal environments help ensure market stability by safeguarding intellectual property rights. Businesses invest considerable resources in research and development to innovate new products and technologies, and legal protection of these investments is critical in maintaining market stability.[29]
For instance, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) provides a framework for safeguarding intellectual property rights across international
borders.[30] WIPO establishes norms for protecting patents, trademarks, and copyrights through treaties and agreements and offers dispute resolution mechanisms to enable businesses to enforce their rights. By safeguarding intellectual property, international legal environments promote innovation and incentivize companies to invest in new technologies, which in turn fosters market stability.[31]
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an also example of how the international legal environment has contributed to maintaining market stability. The organization, consisting of member countries, works to encourage equitable and unrestricted trade by establishing and enforcing regulations and agreements related to trade issues.[32]
Through the WTO’s legal framework, trade conflicts and wars between member countries that could upset global markets are avoided. Furthermore, the organization facilitates negotiations and conflict resolution through an open and transparent process.[33]
To illustrate, the WTO played a vital role in resolving a disagreement between the United States and the European Union regarding subsidies provided to airplane manufacturers, Boeing and Airbus. [34] The WTO found both parties guilty of violating regulations and allowed for the implementation of tariffs on each other’s goods. However, in 2020, the two sides reached a mutually agreed settlement, preventing a trade war and promoting stability in the aerospace industry.[35]
In summary, the WTO’s legal environment has fostered market stability by encouraging free and fair trade, facilitating dispute resolution through negotiations, and preventing trade conflicts between member countries.
Moreover, it is incorrect to claim that the global legal environment causes instability across the entire market. Nevertheless, specific laws or regulatory structures may have unintentional adverse effects on market stability in certain cases.
Governments have the authority to enforce trade restrictions like tariffs in order to safeguard their local businesses, this is also known as “Protectionism”.[36] However, this could result in countermeasures by other nations, sparking trade conflicts that generate unpredictability and turbulence in the market. Ultimately, this can cause a reduction in investment and hinder economic growth.[37]
Fluctuations in currency exchange rates among countries can greatly affect worldwide trade and investment. To gain an upper hand in the global market, governments may manipulate their currency rates, which can result in destabilization and market turbulence.[38] The manipulation of currency can cause markets distort in three important ways, damaging the country, economy and costing jobs.[39]
The intricacies of a nation’s politics present a significant obstacle for international business. The decisions made by political figures regarding matters such as labor regulations, education, transportation, and taxation have an impact on the business environment. [40] Handling the complex political challenges of multiple countries can be challenging, and therefore it’s essential to adequately prepare your company for globalization before expanding into international markets.[41]
For example, The European Union’s (EU) General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is an instance where the international legal environment has restrained market growth. This regulation has been in effect since May 2018, with the aim of protecting the personal data of EU citizens.[42]
Although GDPR has successfully improved data protection, it has also presented substantial difficulties for companies operating within the EU and globally. The regulation mandates stringent conditions for how companies can gather, process, and store personal data. Failure to comply with these provisions can lead to substantial financial penalties.[43]Consequently, many companies have had to make significant investments in compliance measures, such as employing data protection officers, adopting new data processing systems, and conducting privacy impact assessments.[44] This has resulted in increased expenses and administrative burdens, particularly for smaller firms and start-ups that may lack the resources to implement such measures.[45]
Moreover, GDPR has created greater fragmentation in the global digital market, with some firms opting to reduce their activities in the EU or avoiding business dealings with EU citizens entirely, to sidestep the regulatory expenses and risks that come with GDPR compliance.[46]
Overall, although GDPR has enhanced data protection for EU citizens, it has also constrained market growth by introducing substantial regulatory burdens and contributing to fragmentation in the global digital economy.
To avoid corruption:
The International Legal environment plays a vital role in avoiding corruption, the main objective of these regulations, commonly referred to as laws on access to information, is to increase the transparency and responsibility of a government to its citizens. [47]In emerging democracies, statutes that uphold the right to information are a crucial component of converting a country from one with an autocratic and secretive regime to one governed by and for the people.[48]
Approaches based on the rule of law concentrate on combating corruption through regulation and legal action. These methods often prioritize reforms aimed at bolstering the international framework responsible for enforcing and prosecuting anti-corruption laws.[49]
Unfair practices, such as corruption, impose a penalty on companies that are honest and strive to secure contracts through the quality and pricing of their goods and services.[50] For example, The United States has been working to create a level playing field by promoting other developed nations to implement similar measures since the implementation of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA). These efforts have started to bear fruit as progress has been made in forming a global coalition to combat public corruption and bribery.[51] The U.S. Department of State has recently reported that several international organizations have made progress in addressing corruption in business dealings, official corruption, and transparency concerns. This progress is expected to promote fair competition among all businesses in the international marketplace.[52]
Similarly, international organizations, such as the United Nations, World Bank[53], and International Monetary Fund (IMF)[54], can also contribute to the prevention of corruption by creating benchmarks for effective governance.[55]
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is alarmed by the ramifications of illegal activities, such as money laundering, funding terrorism, and proliferation financing, corruption and other associated crimes that can harm the financial industry and the wider economy. [56] The lack of an emphasis on or disregard for the global legal framework can contribute to an increase in criminal activities Such crimes can decrease a nation’s stability, which can ultimately weaken law enforcement, governance, regulatory efficacy, foreign investment, and international capital movements.[57] Moreover, The International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) comprise a collection of accounting guidelines for the financial statements of publicly traded corporations that aim to ensure their uniformity, transparency, and convenient comparability across the globe also preventing corruption.[58]
Corruption is an issue that particularly impacts businesses, especially those involved in international trade, finance, and technology transfer but the bigger problem is the absence and lack of enforcement of the law despite having a proper international legal framework.[59]
Although the afore discussion clearly demonstrates how the international legal environment helps in avoiding corruption but that does not completely guarantee the eradication of corruption from the system as a whole. There can be a several flaws in the system which lower its effectiveness. The absence of a universally accepted definition of corruption from leading legal experts has had a significant negative impact. [60] With the increasing globalization of human activity, corruption is having a more adverse effect on various aspects of life, necessitating more effective regulation of socio-economic factors susceptible to corruption. As corruption has become a global issue, modern society needs to establish effective regulations to combat it. Leading international organizations are actively addressing this problem by creating a system of regulatory measures aimed at eradicating corruption.[61]
Such as, fragile states are characterized by a lack of effectiveness, capability, and credibility in their administration, all of which can be eroded by corruption. Corruption is probable to undermine both the effectiveness of the state, i.e., its capacity to govern, and its legitimacy.[62]
Corruption can be deeply ingrained in some societies, and cultural and social norms may play a significant role in perpetuating corrupt practices despite having legal frameworks set. In situations where certain forms of corrupt behavior are ingrained in social norms and cultural practices, corruption can become a norm during an individual’s socialization process, leading to its collective reproduction, normalization, and reinforcement. [63] In such circumstances, anticorruption measures that assume corruption is a deviant conduct may not be effective. For example, despite recent efforts by President Yoweri Museveni’s administration to combat corruption in Uganda, progress has been limited, resulting in a significant gap in implementation. As a result, corruption, ranging from minor to major offenses, persists and poses a major hindrance to the country’s development.[64] Petty acts of corruption, such as bribery, nepotism, absenteeism, and gift-giving, are prevalent, deeply entrenched, and endemic, with negative effects on the provision of fundamental public services to citizens.[65]
Protection of rights of parties involved:
Protection of the rights of the ones involved in any sort of interaction or business dealings is one of the most important aspects when examining the role of international legal system. By ensuring a set of legal frameworks consisting of regulations, rules and institutions, it is assured that international relations are dealt in a ‘fair and equitable’ manner which guarantees a just and predictable approach.[66]
The foremost conduct of international legal system in ensuring the rights of those involved is to resolve any sort of disputes that arise during the business proceedings. Whenever there is a dispute within the states or with businesses operating therein, the legal system provides a forum in handling such situations by giving impartial, reasonable and neutral outcome to the problem.[67] This is done at an initial stage by using mediation which is a form of a dialogue to reach settlement instead of resorting towards violence. This not only aids in avoiding conflicts and disputes but also guarantees the smooth and peaceful working of the international legal system.[68]
Also, the protection of rights of the persons involved and the assurance of maintenance of social justice is a prime role of international legal system. Rights of the individuals including the right of free trial or the freedom of speech, right to free trade or right against discrimination, right against abuse by third party are protected under this system. [69] Conventions and International treaties play a crucial role in assuring that the rights are properly delivered to the people in the dealings. This guarantees the fair treatment to those who are a part of the business.[70]
It is also worth noticing that in order to enforce the international law, rules and regulations the role played by the courts and tribunals is important. The notable role played by the international court of justice where the compliance of the rulings of International legal system is guaranteed and those violating the precedence set by system are held accountable for their actions.[71] And the international criminal courts (ICC) where the sovereignty of rule of law is maintained and it is ensured that none of the severe crimes, be it in person or in business dealings, go unpunished aids in promoting respect and regard for international law. The system of accountability offered helps not only in ensuring the justice but also promote compliance with standards set by the internet legal system.[72]
Hence it is valid to extract that the international legal system helps in maintaining peace and stability and ensures smooth working running of businesses in such a manner that the rights of any individual or state is not hampered throughout. And it would be wrong to argue that the system is not helpful in business dealings, transactions and dispute resolutions. However, it is worth looking that there are still a few flaws within this system as well. Although, a highly efficient system but at some instances, it can be observed that there are a few limitations and flaws that hinders the effectiveness of the system.
As we have seen that the ICJ, courts and tribunals work together for the protection of the international legal system and give firm rulings and judgements to hold the parties accountable that violate the law and punish according to the set standards. But it can be seen that there is a lack of effective enforcement mechanisms to implement what is ordered by the court. This harms the sovereignty and gives out an impression that the law is weak and ineffective[73]
As discussed earlier, the international legal system works on the basis of principle of ‘equity and fairness’ and that all states are to be treated equally and fairly, without any unjust and unlawful behavior towards any state. However, in practical terms, this notion of sovereign equally seems to get violated in international legal system as the nations which are more powerful and influential seems to violate the law in their own interests. This gives another major dent to the promise of international legal system in deliverance of rights.[74]
Another loophole in the implementation of deliverance of rights in the international legal system to ensure smooth working of businesses is that not all of the parties involved have access to the system itself. As with any other legal system, the international legal system is time consuming and costly at the same time which hampers its access to those individuals and businesses that have scarce resources and expertise to bring their case up in the sphere of international legal system. According to a report, a survey of 10,000 small businesses shows that about 1/3 of these businesses face some sort of business issue in a year and just a quarter of such businesses seek legal help to sought their issues. This itself is an explanation to how much other businesses would get exploited.[75]
Goldsmith and Posner argue that international law is important but less powerful than commonly believed. They suggest that it reflects the interests of powerful states, changes often, and violations are frequently unpunished. Hence the scope of the international law in limited and deals with a portion of society involved in business and not the whole in general.[76]
[1] Debra Johnson, Colin Turner, “International Business”, 2nd Edition, published in 2010.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Mirande Valbrune, Renee De Assis, “Business Law I Essentials”, (OpenStax, Sep 27, 2019)
https://openstax.org/books/business-law-i-essentials/pages/13-1-introduction-to-international-law
[4] Ibid.
[5][5] Legal Environment: Chapter 15, “Global Business Environment’.
https://www.icmrindia.org/courseware/Global%20Business%20Environment/Legal%20Environment.htm
[6] Mirande Valbrune, Renee De Assis, ‘Business Law I Essentials”, (OpenStax, Sep 27, 2019)
https://openstax.org/books/business-law-i-essentials/pages/13-1-introduction-to-international-law
[7] Ibid.
[8] R. Kimball, “What is International Business Law?”, (My law questions, Last Modified Date: April 05, 2023)
https://www.mylawquestions.com/what-is-international-business-law.htm
[9] Ibid.
[10] By admi editor, “International Business Law: Significance & Principles”, (anagpuria, October 30, 2022)
https://anangpuria.com/international-business-law-significance-principles/
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid 2.
[13] R. Kimball, “What is International Business Law?”, (My law questions, Last Modified Date: April 05, 2023)
https://www.mylawquestions.com/what-is-international-business-law.htm
[13] By admi editor, “International Business Law: Significance & Principles”, (anagpuria, October 30, 2022)
https://anangpuria.com/international-business-law-significance-principles/
[14] Ibid.
[15]“Legal issues in international business”, Crest Legal, December 13, 2021.
https://crestlegal.com/legal-issues-in-international-business/
[16] Ibid.
[17] “In-Country Compliance Management for International Business”, Global Compliance, June 19, 2020.
https://www.globalexpansion.com/blog/in-country-compliance-management-for-international-business
[18] “Why is risk management important?”, IBM.
[19] Tauseef Adeel Hassan, & Shaukat Hussain Bhatti. (2023). International Business Law and Regulations. Journal of Social Sciences Review, 3(1), 422–432.
https://ojs.jssr.org.pk/index.php/jssr/article/view/122
[20] Ibid.
[21] International Business Transactions, UCLA Law.
https://law.ucla.edu/academics/curriculum/international-business-transactions
[22] UNIT 4: LEGAL FACTORS, “A level Business”.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Team ZenBusiness, “THE LEGAL ENVIRONMENT OF BUSINESS – WHY SHOULD YOU CARE?” (Zen business, February 14, 2022)
https://www.zenbusiness.com/blog/the-legal-environment-of-business-why-should-you-care/
[25] Ibid.
[26] Ibid 2.
[27] Beth A. Simmons, “International Law and State Behavior: Commitment and Compliance in International Monetary Affairs”, The American Political Science Review Vol. 94, No. 4 (Dec., 2000).
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2586210
[28] Ibid.
[29] Improving the Legal Environment for Business and Investment in Central Asia, Policy Insights.
https://www.oecd.org/eurasia/Improving-LEB-CA-ENG%2020%20April.pdf
[30] Mr. Henry Olsson, Judge at the Court of Appeal, “INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE PROTECTION OF COPYRIGHT AND RELATED RIGHTS”, (WIPO NATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR JUDGES, May 2004)
https://www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/arab/en/wipo_ip_ju_ryd_04/wipo_ip_ju_ryd_04_1.pdf
[31] Intellectual property: protection and enforcement, “UNDERSTANDING THE WTO: THE AGREEMENTS” (World trade organization)
https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/agrm7_e.htm
[32] The World Trade Organization, the WTO — is the international organization whose primary purpose is to open trade for the benefit of all.
https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/wto_dg_stat_e.htm
[33] WTO IN BRIEF, The World Trade Organization.
https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/inbrief_e/inbr_e.htm
[34] Press release, “EU and US take decisive step to end aircraft dispute”, European Commission.
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_3001
[35] Ibid.
[36] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopedia. “Protectionism.” Encyclopedia Britannica, May 15, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/topic/protectionism.
[37] Ibid.
[38] “What Is It and How Does It Affect American Jobs?”, CURRENCY MANIPULATION 101, American Automakers.
https://www.americanautomakers.org/currency-manipulation-101
[39] Ibid.
[40]Michael Boyles, “UNDERSTANDING HOW POLITICS CAN AFFECT YOUR BUSINESS”, Harvard Business School. 19 JUL 2022https://online.hbs.edu/blog/post/politics-and-business#:~:text=International%20Factors&text=A%20country’s%20political%20nuances%20is,%2C%20in%20turn%2C%20influence%20business.
[41] Ibid.
[42] Giorgio Presidente Carl Benedikt Frey, “The GDPR effect: How data privacy regulation shaped firm performance globally”, Vox, 10 Mar 2022.https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/gdpr-effect-how-data-privacy-regulation-shaped-firm-performance-globally
[43] Aryamala Prasad, “Unintended Consequences of GDPR”, Regulatory studies center, September 3, 2020.
https://regulatorystudies.columbian.gwu.edu/unintended-consequences-gdpr
[44] Ibid
[45] Ibid. 2
[46] GlobalData Thematic Research, “Data privacy: Fragmented regulations increase uncertainty and costs”, Verdict, January 28, 2022.
https://www.verdict.co.uk/fragmented-data-privacy-regulations/
[47] Georg Neumann, “Using the Right to Information as an Anti-Corruption Tool”, TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL
[48] Ibid.
[49] Marie Chêne, Transparency International, “SUCCESSFUL ANTI-CORRUPTION REFORMS”, 30 April 2015.
https://www.transparency.org/files/content/corruptionqas/Successful_anti-corruption_reforms.pdf
[50] :William P. Olsen, “U.S. Efforts to Combat Global Corruption”, The Anti‐Corruption Handbook: How to Protect Your Business in the Global Marketplace, Willy Online Library, Chapter 3, 02 January 2012.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781119198451.ch3
[51] Ibid.
[52] Ibid. 2
[53] Kohler, J.C., Bowra, A. Exploring anti-corruption, transparency, and accountability in the World Health Organization, the United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank Group, and the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. Global Health 16, 101 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-020-00629-5
[54] “How does the IMF promote good governance?”, International Monetary Fund.
https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2023/The-IMF-and-Good-Governance
[55] Kohler, J.C., Bowra, A. Exploring anti-corruption, transparency, and accountability in the World Health Organization, the United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank Group, and the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. Global Health 16, 101 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-020-00629-5
[56] “Why is the IMF concerned about money laundering and terrorism financing,” THE IMF AND THE FIGHT AGAINST MONEY LAUNDERING AND TERRORISM FINANCING. International Monetary Fund
THE IMF AND THE FIGHT AGAINST MONEY LAUNDERING AND TERRORISM FINANCING
[57] Ibid.
[58] BARCLAY PALMER, “What Are International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)?”, Investopedia, September 13, 2022.
[59] Argandoña, A. The United Nations Convention Against Corruption and its Impact on International Companies. J Bus Ethics 74, 481–496 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9524-z
[60] Vladimir Demidov, Dmitry Mokhorov, Anna Mokhorova & Zohidzhon Askarov, “International Legal Problems of Fighting Corruption in the Context of Geopolitical Integration”, Springer Link, 04 October 2020.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-58263-0_28
[61] Ibid.
[62] “What are the lessons learned in fighting corruption in post-conflict countries?” Lessons learned in fighting corruption in post-conflict countries.
[63] Claudia Baez Camargo, “Corruption, Social Norms and Behaviors A comparative assessment of Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda” | Basel Institute of Governance, December 2017
https://baselgovernance.org/sites/default/files/2019-01/earf_comparative_report.pdf
[64] Ibid.
[65] Ibid.
[66] OECD (2004), “Fair and Equitable Treatment Standard in International Investment Law”, OECD Working Papers on International Investment, 2004/03, OECD Publishing.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/675702255435
[67] WTO IN BRIEF, World Trade Organization.
https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/inbrief_e/inbr_e.htm
[68] Mahmood, Hasnain. “Roles of the International Law to settle dispute through Mediation.” Research Gate, (2022).
[69] United Nations, Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework, Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.
https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/publications/guidingprinciplesbusinesshr_en.pdf
[70] Claire Methven O’Brien, “A handbook Claire Methven O’Brien for legal practitioners”, BUSINESS AND HUMAN RIGHTS, November 2018.
https://rm.coe.int/business-and-human-rights-a-handbook-of-legal-practitioners/168092323f
[71] Uphold International Law, United Nations.
https://www.un.org/en/our-work/uphold-international-law
[72] Sang-Hyun Song, “The Role of the International Criminal Court in Ending Impunity and Establishing the Rule of Law”, United nations, December 2012, No. 4 Vol. XLIX, Delivering Justice.
[73] Elena Katselli Proukaki, “The Problem of Enforcement in International Law”, 2010.
https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/43915/external_content.pdf?sequence=1
[74] Nico Krisch, “International Law in Times of Hegemony: Unequal Power and the Shaping of the International Legal Order’, The European Journal of International Law Vol. 16 no.3, 2005.
http://www.ejil.org/pdfs/16/3/301.pdf
[75] “New research reveals the legal struggles facing small businesses: LSB calls on the government for a legal support strategy”, Legal Services Board, 23rd May 2022.
[76] Jack L. Goldsmith, Eric A. Posner, “The Limits of International Law”, 2005.
